On 26 December 2004 a magnitude 9.1 undersea earthquake off Sumatra generated tsunami waves that struck coastlines around the Indian Ocean, killing an estimated 220,000 to 230,000 people across more than a dozen countries. Coastal districts of Aceh in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, southern India and Thailand suffered the heaviest losses, with whole settlements destroyed. The absence of a warning system contributed to the toll. Reconstruction efforts faced contested debates over coastal buffer zones and where to rebuild.
It became a defining case of coastal vulnerability, driving tsunami early-warning systems, setback regulations and 'build back better' approaches to rebuilding shoreline settlements.
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